Table 1 Characteristics of clockware and swarm development strategies

Planned by following protocols

Dynamic planning, in response to uncertain or changing environment

Linear planning

Rarely linear, usually non-linear planning

Detailed and careful planning before start

Early planning is rapid with just enough ideas to allow early testing

Ideas developed in detail before testing and then small modifications if problems arise

Ideas tested early and discarded if not suitable; new ideas generated and tested. Process repeats until ideas sustain repeat testing and refinement without failure

Resources are distributed to tackle different parts of the problem separately

Resources are concentrated together on each stage or part of the problem (like a swarm of bees)

Standard operating procedures and checklists used to generate ideas and specify methods

Brainstorming what to do and how to do it

Fixed time table

Open time table

Deep analysis

Rapid analysis

Early failure is seen as obstacle

Early failure is an opportunity

Assumes static, closed system

Assumes open, unpredictable system

Problem to solve is viewed as finite

Problem is viewed as infinite

Overall effort to control process

Overall effort to find best responses

Process leads to consistent outcomes

The process changes itself and the outcomes, so outcomes will be inconsistent

Failure may not be apparent until implementation

Failure is sought at every stage

Feedback and testing focused on pilot testing and final evaluation

Feedback and testing at all stages