Table 1 Ostrom’s core design principles

1. Clearly defined boundaries

The identity of the group and the boundaries of the shared resource are clearly delineated

2. Proportional equivalence between benefits and costs

Members of the group must negotiate a system that rewards members for their contributions. High status or other disproportionate benefits must be earned. Unfair inequality poisons collective efforts

3.Collective-choice arrangements

Group members must be able to create at least some of their own rules and make their decisions by consensus. People do not generally like to be told what to do but will work for mutually agreed group goals

4. Collective endeavours are inherently vulnerable to ‘free-riding’ and active exploitation

Collaborative efforts are unlikely to be successful unless there are strategies for norm-abiding members of the group to detect and manage such activities without great cost to themselves

5. Graduated sanctions

Transgressions need not require heavy-handed punishment, at least initially. Often gossip or a gentle reminder is sufficient, but more severe sanctions must also be ‘waiting in the wings’ for use when necessary

6. Conflict resolution mechanisms

It must be possible to resolve conflicts quickly and in ways that are perceived as fair by members of the group

7. Minimal recognition of rights to organize

Groups must have the authority to conduct their own affairs. Externally imposed rules violate principle 3

8. For groups that are part of larger social systems, there must be appropriate coordination among relevant groups

Every sphere of activity has an optimal scale. Any collective should recognise and form appropriate relationships with other groups within the system they operate. These relationships should not undermine the autonomy of the group to make collective decisions but should recognise that working effectively within a system requires some degree of cooperation between groups